Kinàmàgawin – Let’s learn together about the History of Canada and how the country was first formed.
March 1, 2024
Image: Two Row Wampum1
After the founding of the United States of America there emerged a peculiarly American concept of “Manifest Destiny” which stood for the proposition that white settlers were destined to expand their influence across all unsettled territories across North America. This doctrine was brought to North America with the missionaries and explorers who were largely funded by European royalty who never set out without the Catholic Church’s blessings. Manifest Destiny was founded on another document, the Doctrine of Christian Discovery2 which promoted the idea of white Christian superiority and was used to justify the, often violent, expulsion of indigenous people from their land and was used as the United States spread westward.
The notion of manifest destiny was an important element of American politics throughout the 19th century but gathered momentum in the mid-part of that century as the appetite and apparent need for westward expansion grew. Following the American Civil War (1861-1865), the U.S. had a large army at its disposal which allowed it to effectively pursue some of its imperialist policy goals.
The concept of manifest destiny had a direct impact on the founding of Canada as an independent nation. From the first days following the Declaration of Independence the union of American states had thoughts of eventually annexing all British territory in North America as part of a vision of a unified nation across the continent. There is a clear citing in the original Article of Confederation that preceded the U.S. Constitution, contemplating the future inclusion of “Quebec”, which at the time referenced all of what eventually became Canada.
During the U.S. Civil War the British had aided the Confederate States by assisting in the development of a Confederate Navy and by otherwise ignoring its own neutrality laws. After the War was over the U.S. sued Britain for reparations owed because of that support. In the lawsuit, some Americans argued that Britain should offer Canada as fair compensation for the British complicity. Such proposals were not taken seriously by British statesmen, but they convey the passion with which some Americans viewed the issue and desire for the prize of more land to the north.
Nevertheless, the articulation of the notion that Canada ought to be brought into the U.S. was enough to spur Canadian politicians at the time to work together and form the Dominion of Canada. Of course, originally this Dominion only included what today is Nova Scotia, PEI, New Brunswick, Quebec and Ontario. It became evident that in order to build up a defense against the threat of U.S. imperialism, Canada itself had to undertake a campaign of Western expansion. In particular there was a call to sweep in what was then known as Rupert’s Land, a vast land holding presumably owned by the Hudson’s Bay Company and consisting of territory which today includes Manitoba, Saskatchewan and Alberta.
Immediately following the proclamation of Canadian Confederation, the Dominion began negotiations with Britain and the Hudson's Bay Company (HBC) for the acquisition of the Company's Charter to Rupert's Land. The charter was secured and full control transferred by the British under the Rupert's Land Act of 1868 and the Northwest Territories Transfer Act in 1870. As part of the obligations created by the transfer of the HBC charter, Canada was responsible for addressing any and all Aboriginal claims to land. This lead to the negotiations of the “Numbered Treaties”.
The concept was quite clear. In order to fend off American expansion under the doctrine of “manifest destiny” and to secure economic stability by ensuring access to resources in Rupert’s Land, Canadian political leaders developed the concept of our own westward expansion which would include the construction of telegraph lines and a railway to link east and west. The problem was that there was no basis for the exertion of Canadian authority over the western territories and this necessitated the negotiation of Treaties which were aimed at persuading indigenous communities to cede their land in exchange of certain concessions such as annuities, promised reserve lands, the retention of hunting and fishing rights, support for the education of children, ongoing payments to indigenous leaders and their populations, and direct support for the establishment of agricultural practices.
Taking the form established by the 1850 Robinson Treaties, the Crown negotiated eleven treaties between 1871 and 1921. These treaties covered the area between the Lake of the Woods to the Rocky Mountains to the Beaufort Sea. The Treaty Commissioners explained that the reserves were to assist Aboriginal people adapt to a life without the buffalo hunt and that the Government would assist them in the transition to agriculture by providing tools and other farming implements.
However, these Treaties were flawed from the start and were the start of practices that lead to the formation of the Indian Act and other efforts to try to eliminate indigenous culture from Canada. The First Nations that Canada negotiated with were non-literate societies. As a result, it is alleged (and highly likely) that the Canadian negotiators promised that the Treaties did not represent a land surrender where in fact the written Treaties were designed specifically to transfer Aboriginal title to the Crown. Moreover, the legacy of the administration of the numbered treaties has been one of our government going back on many of the promises and entering into a deliberate campaign of neglect purposefully aimed at seeing the indigenous people’s society disintegrated and aboriginal people assimilated into white society and eventually disappearing out of existence.
The Numbered Treaties were one vehicle by which the Department of Indian Affairs implemented existing and future assimilation policies. While the Treaties negotiated between 1871 and 1921 are largely based on the model of the 1850 Robinson Treaties, they are not all identical. The general form and scope of the agreements are similar, but the individual circumstances of the treaty signings led each agreement to have unique clauses. This differential treatment is today problematic and continues to be a source of dissatisfaction amongst many Indigenous people.
Moreover, the Numbered Treaties are just one set of the Treaties covering lands in Canada and it must be noted that there are significant parts of Canada, like most of British Columbia and most of the northern territories, that are not covered by any treaties. This lends to the complexity of relations between the federal government and Canada’s indigenous people. The Numbered Treaties are part of the legacy of manipulation and abuse that mars Canada’s historic reputation. It is important for all Canadians to understand this part of our history. It is yet another piece of the puzzle that has to be put together in order for us to acknowledge the truth and as we move down the path of reconciliation.
The Two Row Wampum is a record of an original treaty between the Haudenosaunee people and early European settlers (Dutch) in 1613 which was based on an agreement that Indigenous people and the newcomers would respect each other’s cultures: “Each will travel down the river of life side by side. Neither will attempt to steer the other’s vessel”. Hence the graphics on the belt of two parallel blue lines representing this notion.
April 2023, the Catholic Church, after years of lobbying by indigenous peoples, finally disassociates itself and apologizes for the impact on of the Doctrine of Discovery on indigenous peoples worldwide. Read and listen here as reported by Global News at the time: https://globalnews.ca/video/9592153/catholic-church-repudiates-doctrine-of-discovery-used-to-justify-seizure-of-indigenous-lands