Tipping Points – The War of 1812
May 24, 2024
Major General Isaac Brock and Tecumseh look down on Fort Detroit. (Credit: Wikimedia Commons)
Wars are complicated events. It is seldom that a war starts over a single cause. Rather the outbreak of hostilities between two nations is usually the result of a build-up of grievances over time. In the case of the War of 1812 (Britian’s war with the United States over the territory now known as Canada) it can be said that in part, it was the result of a number of key factors. One of the prime grievances the Americans had against the British was the practice of impressment1 Essentially, the British Navy in desperate need of sailors to man the fleet to fight the French in the Napoleonic War, and forcibly boarded and searched American merchant ships in search for any British subjects who may have deserted or otherwise were trying to avoid service in His Majesty’s navy. In many cases the British forced sailors, some of whom were U.S. citizens to serve in the navy because they were suspected of being British subjects by birth. The operating premise being that once one was born a subject of the Crown, one remained a subject of the Crown under all circumstances.
Between 6,000 and 9,000 Americans were forced into the crews on British ships between 1803 and 1812. Some of the impressed sailors were born in British possessions2 (colonies) but had migrated to the United States, while many others had attained citizenship that was either in question or simply could not be documented. This practice was seen as a direct threat to American sovereignty and an assault on its citizens.
A second factor that lead to the initiation of the War of 1812 was the fact that Upper Canada was largely populated by Americans who had emigrated to Canada to take advantage of free land and relative freedom from U.S. taxation. In many ways the U.S. government felt its destiny lay in building a nation that covered all of North America. Following the Declaration of Independence in 1776 the then 13 American colonies formed a confederation whose Articles contained an open invitation to the Canadian colonies to join in the union. One of the objectives of the war was to conquer Upper and Lower Canada (now Ontario and Quebec) and have them join the fledgling American Republic.
This was seen as an easy objective to attain as the U.S. had a population of over 7.7 million people and the Canadian colonies had a meager 500,000 people. The Americans believed the war would be over quickly.
The third factor was related to the continued alliance between the British and their indigenous allies whose presence seemingly posed a threat to American aspirations to continue expansion westward. The Treaty of Paris 1783 which had ended the American Revolution called for the peaceful withdrawal of British troops from the American western frontier. However, this withdrawal never was fully executed and British troops, supported by local indigenous bands, continued to occupy Forts within U.S. borders. Moreover, there was a distinct difference in how the Americans and the British viewed indigenous people. This was strikingly reflected in the Royal Proclamation of 1763 which deferred land rights to indigenous people and was the basis for protecting indigenous rights and containing U.S. westward expansion.
The Royal Proclamation remains an important document for helping us as Canadians define indigenous lands rights. However, it also was a very significant factor that lead to the American Revolution and subsequently the War of 1812. In the latter case the continued alliances between the British and indigenous peoples was perceived as a threat to American colonialists and a barrier to desired western expansion.
James Madison the fourth U.S. President declared war against Britain on June 18, 1812 and with that declaration, U.S. militia invaded Canada. However, the U.S. invasion failed for many reasons. The British regulars were far better trained and motivated. U.S. militia men were often poorly armed and were an undisciplined lot. Moreover, the British were well supported by indigenous warriors who often were so fierce that American military leaders would surrender rather than fight against these “savages”.
The War pressed on and the American side began to have more success in 1813, but as the Napoleonic Wars came to an end with British Victory over the French the British were able to focus resources on defending Canada. It became clear that the U.S. would not be able to take on the British who had previously been distracted by its battles with France.
It is widely believed that the war ended in a draw but it seems evident that given the fact that the U.S. had declared war in the first place, and given their objective to conquer Canada, they had lost. Nevertheless, the Americans could hold their heads high that they had given the mighty British a run for their money. Moreover, and very importantly for understanding Canadian indigenous history and relations, the outcome of the War of 1812 following the signing of the Treaty of Ghent 1814, fell clearly in favour of the Americans and decidedly against the interests of indigenous peoples.
Soon after peace was achieved it became apparent that the British were ready to abandon their indigenous allies in North America. The Haudenosaunee who occupied significant parts of Upper Canada and New York were divided during the war in terms of who they chose to support and remained fractured following the war. This contributed to putting them in a weakened position with respect to holding onto their land.
In Upper Canada, which prior to the war had been sparsely populated by American immigrants, the post war period saw rapid expansion and a wave of new immigrants from Britain. This led to a need for land and the Haudenosaunee and Mississaugas found themselves being forced off their land and forced into reserves patterned after the reservation system established in the U.S. colonies.
In fact, following the War of 1812 Indian policies on both sides of the border began to converge. Governments sought to tame the Indians by forcing them to adopt agricultural practices, accept Christianity and to abandon their nomadic ways. The peace Treaty of Ghent had ostensibly sought to protect Indian land interests but was vaguely worded and was not supported by the British in enforcement. As a result, the Americans continued to aggressively expand westward using force to displace indigenous populations.
This U.S. action forced the British to make a choice between accepting peace with the Americans or taking up arms to support their indigenous allies. The choice to accept peace was made for a lot of reasons. The British were tired of being in the constant state of war. They also had run up debts that had to be repaid and could ill-afford maintaining continued military actions.
There is no doubt that a significant factor was also the changing attitudes and perceptions with respect to their indigenous allies. The fur trade was no longer a significant economic factor for the British and thus economic collaboration was no longer a key objective. A wave of new immigrants had no experience with working hand-in-hand with the indigenous populations and carried significant prejudices that tainted their view of “Indians”. Thus, despite their significant contributions that lead to the saving of Upper Canada from the U.S. invasion, the indigenous people of Canada were no longer seen as valued partners.
This abandonment of British support and the convergence in U.S. and Canadian Indian policies that began to emerge after the War of 1812, demonstrates that the war was a significant tipping point that lead to disastrous results for the indigenous people of Canada. So, while it may be difficult to ascertain who won the war it is very clear who lost.
Impressment was the practice of forcing men to serve in the military against their will. Most often used by the British Navy, impressment often involved violence. Forcing someone to join the military might seem a little extreme, but the British navy used the method for centuries.
These “Possessions” included many colonies in the Caribbean where Britain was a dominant force.